Preliminary information:
Total Area:
The Atlantic Ocean is essentially an S-shaped north-south channel, extending from the Arctic Ocean in the north to the Antarctic continent in the south and situated between the eastern coast of the American continents and the western coasts of Europe and Africa. Covering approximately 22% of Earth's surface, the Atlantic Ocean is second to the Pacific Ocean in size. With its adjacent seas it occupies an area of about 106,400,000 square kilometers (41,100,000 sq mi); without them, it has an area of 82,400,000 square kilometres (31,800,000 sq mi). The land area that drains into the Atlantic is four times that of either the Pacific or Indian oceans. The volume of the Atlantic Ocean with its adjacent seas is 354,700,000 cubic kilometers (85,100,000 cu mi) and without them 323,600,000 cubic kilometres (77,640,000 cu mi).
Location:
body of water between Africa, Europe, the Southern Ocean, and the Western Hemisphere
Area - comparative:
slightly less than 6.5 times the size of the US
Coastline: 111,866 km
Geographic coordinates: 0 00 N, 25 00 W
Depth:
The average depths of the Atlantic, with its adjacent seas, is 3,339 meters (10,936 ft); without them it is 3,926 metres (12,881 ft). The greatest depth, 8,605 metres (28,232 ft), is in the Puerto Rico Trench. The width of the Atlantic varies from 2,848 kilometers (1,770 mi) between Brazil and Sierra Leone to over 6,400 km (4,000 mi) in the south.
Elevation extremes lowest point:
Milwaukee Deep in the Puerto Rico Trench −8,605 metres (-28,232 ft)
highest point: sea level, 0 m (0 ft)
Total Area:
The Atlantic Ocean is essentially an S-shaped north-south channel, extending from the Arctic Ocean in the north to the Antarctic continent in the south and situated between the eastern coast of the American continents and the western coasts of Europe and Africa. Covering approximately 22% of Earth's surface, the Atlantic Ocean is second to the Pacific Ocean in size. With its adjacent seas it occupies an area of about 106,400,000 square kilometers (41,100,000 sq mi); without them, it has an area of 82,400,000 square kilometres (31,800,000 sq mi). The land area that drains into the Atlantic is four times that of either the Pacific or Indian oceans. The volume of the Atlantic Ocean with its adjacent seas is 354,700,000 cubic kilometers (85,100,000 cu mi) and without them 323,600,000 cubic kilometres (77,640,000 cu mi).
Location:
body of water between Africa, Europe, the Southern Ocean, and the Western Hemisphere
Area - comparative:
slightly less than 6.5 times the size of the US
Coastline: 111,866 km
Geographic coordinates: 0 00 N, 25 00 W
Depth:
The average depths of the Atlantic, with its adjacent seas, is 3,339 meters (10,936 ft); without them it is 3,926 metres (12,881 ft). The greatest depth, 8,605 metres (28,232 ft), is in the Puerto Rico Trench. The width of the Atlantic varies from 2,848 kilometers (1,770 mi) between Brazil and Sierra Leone to over 6,400 km (4,000 mi) in the south.
Elevation extremes lowest point:
Milwaukee Deep in the Puerto Rico Trench −8,605 metres (-28,232 ft)
highest point: sea level, 0 m (0 ft)
Prelude:
The Atlantic Ocean is the second-largest of the world's oceanic divisions; with a total area of about 106.4 million square kilometres (41.1 million square miles). It covers approximately one-fifth of the Earth's surface. The first part of its name refers to the Atlas of Greek mythology, making the Atlantic the "Sea of Atlas". The oldest known mention of this name is contained in The Histories of Herodotus around 450 BC (I 202); see also: Atlas Mountains. Another name historically used was the ancient term Ethiopic Ocean, derived from Ethiopia, whose name was sometimes used as a synonym for all of Africa and thus for the ocean. Before Europeans discovered other oceans, the term "ocean" itself was to them synonymous with the waters beyond Western Europe that we now know as the Atlantic and which the Greeks had believed to be a gigantic river encircling the world; see Oceanus.
The Atlantic Ocean occupies an elongated, S-shaped basin extending longitudinally between the Americas to the west, and Eurasia and Africa to the east. A component of the all-encompassing World Ocean, it is connected in the north to the Arctic Ocean (which is sometimes considered a sea of the Atlantic), to the Pacific Ocean in the southwest, the Indian Ocean in the southeast, and the Southern Ocean in the south. (Alternatively, in lieu of it connecting to the Southern Ocean, the Atlantic may be reckoned to extend southward to Antarctica.) The equator subdivides it into the North Atlantic Ocean and South Atlantic Ocean but for physical purposes the division is rotated slightly counter-clockwise to a line roughly from the Bolama region, Guinea-Bissau to Rio Grande do Norte state, Brazil to include the Gulf of Guinea with the South Atlantic and the north coast of South America with the North Atlantic.
The farthest distance across the Atlantic occurs between the United States and North Africa at 4,830 km. The shortest distance is between Senegal and Brazil at 2,575 km. The S shape of the Atlantic ocean results in two distinct basins with their own circulation systems. In the Northern Atlantic currents flow in a clockwise direction, while in the Southern Atlantic currents flow in a counterclockwise direction. This is a result of the Coriolis force.
The Atlantic is separated from the Arctic Ocean by a ridge that runs between Greenland and Scotland which is often called telegraph plateau because of the numerous cables laid along the ridge. It is separated from the Pacific Ocean by the Drake Passage which runs between South American and Antarctica. The boundary between the Atlantic and Indian Oceans is the 20� E meridian. The northern and southern basins are separated at roughly 8� N latitude. The Atlantic is also split down by the middle by the Mid-Atlantic Ridge. The Mid-Atlantic Ridge also contains a rift that is constantly widening and filling with molten lava which is pushing North and South America away from Europe and Africa. There are few islands in the Atlantic. Most are concentrated around the Caribbean. Most of the islands are structurally part of continents or exposed peaks of subterranean mountain ridges.
The Atlantic ocean is the busiest shipping ocean. The Atlantic ocean is the major artery between the Western and Eastern hemisphers. Economic activities include fishing, dredging of aragonite sands in The Bahamas, and production of crude oil and natural gas in the Caribbean Sea, Gulf of Mexico, and North Sea.
The Kiel Canal (Germany), Oresund (Denmark-Sweden), Bosporus (Turkey), Strait of Gibraltar (Morocco-Spain), and the Saint Lawrence Seaway (Canada-US) are important strategic access waterways.
Geography:
The Atlantic Ocean is bounded on the west by North and South America. In the north and northeast, it is separated from the Arctic Ocean by the Canadian Arctic Archipelago, Greenland, Iceland, Jan Mayen, Svalbard, and mainland Europe. It connects to the Arctic Ocean through the Denmark Strait, Greenland Sea, Norwegian Sea, and Barents Sea. To the east, the boundaries of the ocean proper are Europe, the Strait of Gibraltar (where it connects with the Mediterranean Sea, one of its marginal seas, and, in turn, the Black Sea), and Africa. In the southeast, the Atlantic merges into the Indian Ocean, the border being defined by the 20° East meridian, running south from Cape Agulhas to Antarctica. While some authorities show the Atlantic Ocean extending south to Antarctica, others show it as bounded at the 60° parallel by the Southern Ocean. In the southwest, the Drake Passage connects it to the Pacific Ocean. A man-made link between the Atlantic and Pacific is provided by the Panama Canal. Beside those mentioned, other large bodies of water adjacent to the Atlantic are the Caribbean Sea, the Gulf of Mexico, Hudson Bay, the Arctic Ocean, the Mediterranean Sea, the North Sea, the Baltic Sea, and the Celtic Sea.
Covering approximately 22% of Earth's surface, the Atlantic Ocean is second to the Pacific Ocean in size. With its adjacent seas it occupies an area of about 106,400,000 square kilometers (41,100,000 sq mi); without them, it has an area of 82,400,000 square kilometres (31,800,000 sq mi). The land area that drains into the Atlantic is four times that of either the Pacific or Indian oceans. The volume of the Atlantic Ocean with its adjacent seas is 354,700,000 cubic kilometers (85,100,000 cu mi) and without them 323,600,000 cubic kilometres (77,640,000 cu mi).
The average depths of the Atlantic, with its adjacent seas, is 3,339 meters (10,936 ft); without them it is 3,926 metres (12,881 ft). The greatest depth, 8,605 metres (28,232 ft), is in the Puerto Rico Trench. The width of the Atlantic varies from 2,848 kilometers (1,770 mi) between Brazil and Sierra Leone to over 6,400 km (4,000 mi) in the south.
major chokepoints include the Dardanelles, Strait of Gibraltar, access to the Panama and Suez Canals; strategic straits include the Strait of Dover, Straits of Florida, Mona Passage, The Sound (Oresund), and Windward Passage; the Equator divides the Atlantic Ocean into the North Atlantic Ocean and South Atlantic Ocean
Geologic Formation and Structural Features:
The Atlantic began to form during the Jurassic period, about 150 million years ago, when a rift opened up in the supercontinent of Gondwanaland, resulting in the separation of South America and Africa. The separation continues today at the rate of several centimeters a year along the Mid-Atlantic Ridge. Part of the midoceanic ridge system that girdles the world, it is a submarine ridge extending north to south in a sinuous path midway between the continents. Roughly 1500 km (about 930 mi) wide, the ridge has a more rugged topography than any mountain range on land, and is a frequent site of volcanic eruptions and earthquakes. The ridge ranges from about 1 to 3 km (about 0.6 to 2 mi) above the ocean bottom.
Along the American, Antarctic, African, and European coasts are the continental shelves-embankments of the debris washed from the continents. Submarine ridges and rises extend roughly east-west between the continental shelves and the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, dividing the eastern and western ocean floors into a series of basins, also known as abyssal plains. The three basins on the American side of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge are more than 5000 m (more than 16,400 ft) deep: the North American Basin, the Brazil Basin, and the Argentina Basin. The Eurafrican side is marked by several basins that are smaller but just as deep: the Iberia, Canaries, Cape Verde, Sierra Leone, Guinea, Angola, Cape, and Agulhas basins. The large Atlantic-Antarctic Basin lies between the southernmost extension of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge and the Antarctic continent.
The Atlantic Ocean has an average depth of 3926 m (12,881 ft). At its deepest point, in the Puerto Rico Trench, the bottom is 8742 m (28,681 ft) below the surface.
Ocean bottom:
The principal feature of the bathymetry (bottom topography) of the Atlantic Ocean is a submarine mountain range called the Mid-Atlantic Ridge. It extends from Iceland in the north to approximately 58° South latitude, reaching a maximum width of about 1,600 kilometres (1,000 mi). A great rift valley also extends along the ridge over most of its length. The depth of water over the ridge is less than 2,700 m (8,900 ft) in most places, and several mountain peaks rise above the water and form islands. The South Atlantic Ocean has an additional submarine ridge, the Walvis Ridge.
The Mid-Atlantic Ridge separates the Atlantic Ocean into two large troughs with depths averaging between 3,700 and 5,500 metres (12,000 and 18,000 ft). Transverse ridges running between the continents and the Mid-Atlantic Ridge divide the ocean floor into numerous basins. Some of the larger basins are the Blake, Guiana, North American, Cape Verde, and Canaries basins in the North Atlantic. The largest South Atlantic basins are the Angola, Cape, Argentina, and Brazil basins.
The deep ocean floor is thought to be fairly flat, although numerous seamounts and some guyots exist. Several deeps or trenches are also found on the ocean floor. The Puerto Rico Trench, in the North Atlantic, is the deepest at 8,605 meters (28,232 ft). The Laurentian Abyss is found off the eastern coast of Canada. In the South Atlantic, the South Sandwich Trench reaches a depth of 8,428 metres (27,651 ft). A third major trench, the Romanche Trench, is located near the equator and reaches a depth of about 7,454 metres (24,455 ft). The shelves along the margins of the continents constitute about 11% of the bottom topography. Several deep channels cut across the continental rise.
Ocean sediments are composed of terrigenous, pelagic, and authigenic material. Terrigenous deposits consist of sand, mud, and rock particles formed by erosion, weathering, and volcanic activity on land and then washed to sea. These materials are found mostly on the continental shelves and are thickest off the mouths of large rivers or off desert coasts. Pelagic deposits, which contain the remains of organisms that sink to the ocean floor, include red clays and Globigerina, pteropod, and siliceous oozes. Covering most of the ocean floor and ranging in thickness from 60 to 3,300 metres (200 to 11,000 ft), they are thickest in the convergence belts and in the zones of upwelling. Authigenic deposits consist of such materials as manganese nodules. They occur where sedimentation proceeds slowly or where currents sort the deposits.
Terrain:
The surface is usually covered with sea ice in the Labrador Sea, Denmark Strait, and Baltic Sea from October to June. There is a clockwise warm-water gyre in the northern Atlantic, and a counter-clockwise warm-water gyre in the southern Atlantic. The ocean floor is dominated by the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, a rugged north-south centerline for the entire Atlantic basin, first discovered by the Challenger Expedition. This was formed by the vulcanism that also formed the floor of the Atlantic, and the islands rising from it.
The Atlantic Ocean has irregular coasts indented by numerous bays, gulfs, and seas.
Water characteristics:
On average, the Atlantic is the saltiest of the world's major oceans; the salinity of the surface waters in the open ocean ranges from 33 to 37 parts per thousand (3.3 - 3.7%) by mass and varies with latitude and season. Surface salinity values are influenced by evaporation, precipitation, river inflow, and melting of sea ice. Although the minimum salinity values are found just north of the equator (because of heavy tropical rainfall), in general the lowest values are in the high latitudes and along coasts where large rivers flow into the ocean. Maximum salinity values occur at about 25° north and south of the equator, in subtropical regions with low rainfall and high evaporation.
Surface water temperatures, which vary with latitude, current systems, and season and reflect the latitudinal distribution of solar energy, range from less than −2 °C to 29 °C (28 °F to 84 °F). Maximum temperatures occur north of the equator, and minimum values are found in the polar regions. In the middle latitudes, the area of maximum temperature variations, values may vary by 7 °C to 8 °C (13 °F to 14 °F).
The Atlantic Ocean consists of four major water masses. The North and South Atlantic central waters constitute the surface waters. The sub-Antarctic intermediate water extends to depths of 1,000 metres (3,300 ft). The North Atlantic Deep Water reaches depths of as much as 4,000 metres (13,200 ft). The Antarctic Bottom Water occupies ocean basins at depths greater than 4,000 metres (13,200 ft).
Within the North Atlantic, ocean currents isolate a large elongated body of water known as the Sargasso Sea, in which the salinity is noticeably higher than average. The Sargasso Sea contains large amounts of seaweed and is also the spawning ground for both the European eel and the American eel.
Because of the Coriolis effect, water in the North Atlantic circulates in a clockwise direction, whereas water circulation in the South Atlantic is counter-clockwise. The south tides in the Atlantic Ocean are semi-diurnal; that is, two high tides occur during each 24 lunar hours. The tides are a general wave that moves from south to north. In latitudes above 40° North some east-west oscillation occurs.
Currents:
The circulatory system of the surface waters of the Atlantic can be depicted as two large gyres, or circular current systems, one in the North Atlantic and one in the South Atlantic. These currents are primarily wind driven, but are also affected by the rotation of the earth. The currents of the North Atlantic, which include the North Equatorial Current, the Canaries Current, and the Gulf Stream, flow in a clockwise direction. The currents in the South Atlantic, among which are the Brazil, Benguela, and South Equatorial currents, travel in a counterclockwise direction. Each gyre extends from near the equator to about latitude 45°; closer to the poles are the less completely defined counterrotating gyres, one rotating counterclockwise in the Arctic regions of the North Atlantic and one rotating clockwise near Antarctica in the South Atlantic. See Ocean and Oceanography: Ocean Currents.
The Atlantic receives the waters of many of the principal rivers of the world, among them the Saint Lawrence, Mississippi, Orinoco, Amazon, Paraná, Congo, Niger, and Loire, and the rivers emptying into the North, Baltic, and Mediterranean seas. Nevertheless, primarily because of the high salinity of outflow from the Mediterranean, the Atlantic is slightly more saline than the Pacific or Indian oceans.
Climate:
tropical cyclones (hurricanes) develop off the coast of Africa near Cape Verde and move westward into the Caribbean Sea; hurricanes can occur from May to December, but are most frequent from August to November.
The climate of the Atlantic Ocean and adjacent land areas is influenced by the temperatures of the surface waters and water currents as well as the winds blowing across the waters. Because of the ocean's great capacity for retaining heat, maritime climates are more moderate and have less tendency toward extreme seasonal variations than inland climates. Precipitation can be approximated from coastal weather data and air temperature from the water temperatures. The oceans are the major source of the atmospheric moisture that is obtained through evaporation. Climatic zones vary with latitude; the warmest climatic zones stretch across the Atlantic north of the equator. The coldest zones are in the high latitudes, with the coldest regions corresponding to the areas covered by sea ice. Ocean currents contribute to climatic control by transporting warm and cold waters to other regions. Adjacent land areas are affected by the winds that are cooled or warmed when blowing over these currents. The Gulf Stream and its northern extension towards Europe, the North Atlantic Drift, for example, warms the atmosphere of the British Isles and north-western Europe, and the cold water currents contribute to heavy fog off the coast of eastern Canada (the Grand Banks area) and the north-western coast of Africa. In general, winds tend to transport moisture and warm or cool air over land areas. Hurricanes develop in the southern part of the North Atlantic Ocean.
Temperatures:
The Atlantic Ocean may be described as a bed of water colder than 9° C (48° F)-the cold-water sphere-within which lies a bubble of water warmer than 9° C-the warm-water sphere. The warm-water sphere extends between latitude 50° north and latitude 50° south and has an average thickness of about 600 m (about 2000 ft). The most active circulation is found in the uppermost layer of warm water. Below this, circulation becomes increasingly sluggish as the temperature decreases.
Surface temperatures range from 0° C (32° F), found year-round at the Arctic and Antarctic margins, to 27° C (81° F) in the broad belt at the equator. At depths below 2000 m (about 6600 ft), temperatures of 2° C (36° F) are prevalent; in bottom waters, below 4000 m (about 13,200 ft), temperatures of -1° C (30° F) are common.
Seas:
Adriatic Sea, Aegean Sea, Alboran Sea, Argentine Sea, Bay of Biscay, Bay of Bothnia, Bay of Campeche, Bay of Fundy, Baltic Sea, Black Sea, Bothnian Sea, Caribbean Sea, Celtic Sea, Central Baltic Sea, Chesapeake Bay, Davis Strait, Denmark Strait, English Channel, Gulf of Bothnia, Gulf of Guinea, Gulf of Finland, Gulf of Mexico, Gulf of Sidra, Gulf of St. Lawrence, Gulf of Venezuela, Ionian Sea, Labrador Sea, Ligurian Sea, Irish Sea, Marmara Sea, Mediterranean Sea, Mirtoon Sea, North Sea, Norwegian Sea, Sea of Azov, Sea of Crete, Sea of the Hebrides, Sargasso Sea, Thracian Sea, Tyrrhenian Sea, Wadden Sea.
Islands:
The largest islands of the Atlantic Ocean lie on the continental shelves. Newfoundland is the principal island on the North American shelf; the British Isles are the major island group of the Eurafrican shelf. Other continental islands include the Falkland Islands, the only major group on the South American shelf, and the South Sandwich Islands on the Antarctic shelf.
Oceanic islands, usually of volcanic origin, are less common in the Atlantic Ocean than in the Pacific. Among these are the island arc of the Antilles (including Puerto Rico, Hispaniola, Jamaica, and Cuba). In the eastern Atlantic, the Madeiras, Canaries, Cape Verde, and the São Tomé-Príncipe group are the peaks of submarine ridges. The Azores, Saint Paul's Rocks, Ascension, and the Tristan da Cunha group are isolated peaks of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge system; the large island of Iceland is also the result of volcanic action at the Mid-Atlantic Ridge. Bermuda rises from the floor of the North American Basin, and Saint Helena from the Angola Basin.
Islands in the Atlantic Ocean include Greenland, Iceland, Faroe Islands, Great Britain (including numerous surrounding islands), Ireland, Rockall, Newfoundland, Sable Island, Azores, Madeira, Bermuda, Canary Islands, Caribbean, Cape Verde, Sao Tome e Principe, Annobon Province, St. Peter Island, Fernando de Noronha, Rocas Atoll, Ascension Island, Saint Helena, The Islands of Trindad, Tristan da Cunha, Gough Island (Also known as Diego Alvarez), Falkland Islands, Tierra del Fuego, South Georgia Island, South Sandwich Islands, and Bouvet Island.
Economy:
The Atlantic Ocean is the second-largest of the world's oceanic divisions; with a total area of about 106.4 million square kilometres (41.1 million square miles). It covers approximately one-fifth of the Earth's surface. The first part of its name refers to the Atlas of Greek mythology, making the Atlantic the "Sea of Atlas". The oldest known mention of this name is contained in The Histories of Herodotus around 450 BC (I 202); see also: Atlas Mountains. Another name historically used was the ancient term Ethiopic Ocean, derived from Ethiopia, whose name was sometimes used as a synonym for all of Africa and thus for the ocean. Before Europeans discovered other oceans, the term "ocean" itself was to them synonymous with the waters beyond Western Europe that we now know as the Atlantic and which the Greeks had believed to be a gigantic river encircling the world; see Oceanus.
The Atlantic Ocean occupies an elongated, S-shaped basin extending longitudinally between the Americas to the west, and Eurasia and Africa to the east. A component of the all-encompassing World Ocean, it is connected in the north to the Arctic Ocean (which is sometimes considered a sea of the Atlantic), to the Pacific Ocean in the southwest, the Indian Ocean in the southeast, and the Southern Ocean in the south. (Alternatively, in lieu of it connecting to the Southern Ocean, the Atlantic may be reckoned to extend southward to Antarctica.) The equator subdivides it into the North Atlantic Ocean and South Atlantic Ocean but for physical purposes the division is rotated slightly counter-clockwise to a line roughly from the Bolama region, Guinea-Bissau to Rio Grande do Norte state, Brazil to include the Gulf of Guinea with the South Atlantic and the north coast of South America with the North Atlantic.
The farthest distance across the Atlantic occurs between the United States and North Africa at 4,830 km. The shortest distance is between Senegal and Brazil at 2,575 km. The S shape of the Atlantic ocean results in two distinct basins with their own circulation systems. In the Northern Atlantic currents flow in a clockwise direction, while in the Southern Atlantic currents flow in a counterclockwise direction. This is a result of the Coriolis force.
The Atlantic is separated from the Arctic Ocean by a ridge that runs between Greenland and Scotland which is often called telegraph plateau because of the numerous cables laid along the ridge. It is separated from the Pacific Ocean by the Drake Passage which runs between South American and Antarctica. The boundary between the Atlantic and Indian Oceans is the 20� E meridian. The northern and southern basins are separated at roughly 8� N latitude. The Atlantic is also split down by the middle by the Mid-Atlantic Ridge. The Mid-Atlantic Ridge also contains a rift that is constantly widening and filling with molten lava which is pushing North and South America away from Europe and Africa. There are few islands in the Atlantic. Most are concentrated around the Caribbean. Most of the islands are structurally part of continents or exposed peaks of subterranean mountain ridges.
The Atlantic ocean is the busiest shipping ocean. The Atlantic ocean is the major artery between the Western and Eastern hemisphers. Economic activities include fishing, dredging of aragonite sands in The Bahamas, and production of crude oil and natural gas in the Caribbean Sea, Gulf of Mexico, and North Sea.
The Kiel Canal (Germany), Oresund (Denmark-Sweden), Bosporus (Turkey), Strait of Gibraltar (Morocco-Spain), and the Saint Lawrence Seaway (Canada-US) are important strategic access waterways.
Geography:
The Atlantic Ocean is bounded on the west by North and South America. In the north and northeast, it is separated from the Arctic Ocean by the Canadian Arctic Archipelago, Greenland, Iceland, Jan Mayen, Svalbard, and mainland Europe. It connects to the Arctic Ocean through the Denmark Strait, Greenland Sea, Norwegian Sea, and Barents Sea. To the east, the boundaries of the ocean proper are Europe, the Strait of Gibraltar (where it connects with the Mediterranean Sea, one of its marginal seas, and, in turn, the Black Sea), and Africa. In the southeast, the Atlantic merges into the Indian Ocean, the border being defined by the 20° East meridian, running south from Cape Agulhas to Antarctica. While some authorities show the Atlantic Ocean extending south to Antarctica, others show it as bounded at the 60° parallel by the Southern Ocean. In the southwest, the Drake Passage connects it to the Pacific Ocean. A man-made link between the Atlantic and Pacific is provided by the Panama Canal. Beside those mentioned, other large bodies of water adjacent to the Atlantic are the Caribbean Sea, the Gulf of Mexico, Hudson Bay, the Arctic Ocean, the Mediterranean Sea, the North Sea, the Baltic Sea, and the Celtic Sea.
Covering approximately 22% of Earth's surface, the Atlantic Ocean is second to the Pacific Ocean in size. With its adjacent seas it occupies an area of about 106,400,000 square kilometers (41,100,000 sq mi); without them, it has an area of 82,400,000 square kilometres (31,800,000 sq mi). The land area that drains into the Atlantic is four times that of either the Pacific or Indian oceans. The volume of the Atlantic Ocean with its adjacent seas is 354,700,000 cubic kilometers (85,100,000 cu mi) and without them 323,600,000 cubic kilometres (77,640,000 cu mi).
The average depths of the Atlantic, with its adjacent seas, is 3,339 meters (10,936 ft); without them it is 3,926 metres (12,881 ft). The greatest depth, 8,605 metres (28,232 ft), is in the Puerto Rico Trench. The width of the Atlantic varies from 2,848 kilometers (1,770 mi) between Brazil and Sierra Leone to over 6,400 km (4,000 mi) in the south.
major chokepoints include the Dardanelles, Strait of Gibraltar, access to the Panama and Suez Canals; strategic straits include the Strait of Dover, Straits of Florida, Mona Passage, The Sound (Oresund), and Windward Passage; the Equator divides the Atlantic Ocean into the North Atlantic Ocean and South Atlantic Ocean
Geologic Formation and Structural Features:
The Atlantic began to form during the Jurassic period, about 150 million years ago, when a rift opened up in the supercontinent of Gondwanaland, resulting in the separation of South America and Africa. The separation continues today at the rate of several centimeters a year along the Mid-Atlantic Ridge. Part of the midoceanic ridge system that girdles the world, it is a submarine ridge extending north to south in a sinuous path midway between the continents. Roughly 1500 km (about 930 mi) wide, the ridge has a more rugged topography than any mountain range on land, and is a frequent site of volcanic eruptions and earthquakes. The ridge ranges from about 1 to 3 km (about 0.6 to 2 mi) above the ocean bottom.
Along the American, Antarctic, African, and European coasts are the continental shelves-embankments of the debris washed from the continents. Submarine ridges and rises extend roughly east-west between the continental shelves and the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, dividing the eastern and western ocean floors into a series of basins, also known as abyssal plains. The three basins on the American side of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge are more than 5000 m (more than 16,400 ft) deep: the North American Basin, the Brazil Basin, and the Argentina Basin. The Eurafrican side is marked by several basins that are smaller but just as deep: the Iberia, Canaries, Cape Verde, Sierra Leone, Guinea, Angola, Cape, and Agulhas basins. The large Atlantic-Antarctic Basin lies between the southernmost extension of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge and the Antarctic continent.
The Atlantic Ocean has an average depth of 3926 m (12,881 ft). At its deepest point, in the Puerto Rico Trench, the bottom is 8742 m (28,681 ft) below the surface.
Ocean bottom:
The principal feature of the bathymetry (bottom topography) of the Atlantic Ocean is a submarine mountain range called the Mid-Atlantic Ridge. It extends from Iceland in the north to approximately 58° South latitude, reaching a maximum width of about 1,600 kilometres (1,000 mi). A great rift valley also extends along the ridge over most of its length. The depth of water over the ridge is less than 2,700 m (8,900 ft) in most places, and several mountain peaks rise above the water and form islands. The South Atlantic Ocean has an additional submarine ridge, the Walvis Ridge.
The Mid-Atlantic Ridge separates the Atlantic Ocean into two large troughs with depths averaging between 3,700 and 5,500 metres (12,000 and 18,000 ft). Transverse ridges running between the continents and the Mid-Atlantic Ridge divide the ocean floor into numerous basins. Some of the larger basins are the Blake, Guiana, North American, Cape Verde, and Canaries basins in the North Atlantic. The largest South Atlantic basins are the Angola, Cape, Argentina, and Brazil basins.
The deep ocean floor is thought to be fairly flat, although numerous seamounts and some guyots exist. Several deeps or trenches are also found on the ocean floor. The Puerto Rico Trench, in the North Atlantic, is the deepest at 8,605 meters (28,232 ft). The Laurentian Abyss is found off the eastern coast of Canada. In the South Atlantic, the South Sandwich Trench reaches a depth of 8,428 metres (27,651 ft). A third major trench, the Romanche Trench, is located near the equator and reaches a depth of about 7,454 metres (24,455 ft). The shelves along the margins of the continents constitute about 11% of the bottom topography. Several deep channels cut across the continental rise.
Ocean sediments are composed of terrigenous, pelagic, and authigenic material. Terrigenous deposits consist of sand, mud, and rock particles formed by erosion, weathering, and volcanic activity on land and then washed to sea. These materials are found mostly on the continental shelves and are thickest off the mouths of large rivers or off desert coasts. Pelagic deposits, which contain the remains of organisms that sink to the ocean floor, include red clays and Globigerina, pteropod, and siliceous oozes. Covering most of the ocean floor and ranging in thickness from 60 to 3,300 metres (200 to 11,000 ft), they are thickest in the convergence belts and in the zones of upwelling. Authigenic deposits consist of such materials as manganese nodules. They occur where sedimentation proceeds slowly or where currents sort the deposits.
Terrain:
The surface is usually covered with sea ice in the Labrador Sea, Denmark Strait, and Baltic Sea from October to June. There is a clockwise warm-water gyre in the northern Atlantic, and a counter-clockwise warm-water gyre in the southern Atlantic. The ocean floor is dominated by the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, a rugged north-south centerline for the entire Atlantic basin, first discovered by the Challenger Expedition. This was formed by the vulcanism that also formed the floor of the Atlantic, and the islands rising from it.
The Atlantic Ocean has irregular coasts indented by numerous bays, gulfs, and seas.
Water characteristics:
On average, the Atlantic is the saltiest of the world's major oceans; the salinity of the surface waters in the open ocean ranges from 33 to 37 parts per thousand (3.3 - 3.7%) by mass and varies with latitude and season. Surface salinity values are influenced by evaporation, precipitation, river inflow, and melting of sea ice. Although the minimum salinity values are found just north of the equator (because of heavy tropical rainfall), in general the lowest values are in the high latitudes and along coasts where large rivers flow into the ocean. Maximum salinity values occur at about 25° north and south of the equator, in subtropical regions with low rainfall and high evaporation.
Surface water temperatures, which vary with latitude, current systems, and season and reflect the latitudinal distribution of solar energy, range from less than −2 °C to 29 °C (28 °F to 84 °F). Maximum temperatures occur north of the equator, and minimum values are found in the polar regions. In the middle latitudes, the area of maximum temperature variations, values may vary by 7 °C to 8 °C (13 °F to 14 °F).
The Atlantic Ocean consists of four major water masses. The North and South Atlantic central waters constitute the surface waters. The sub-Antarctic intermediate water extends to depths of 1,000 metres (3,300 ft). The North Atlantic Deep Water reaches depths of as much as 4,000 metres (13,200 ft). The Antarctic Bottom Water occupies ocean basins at depths greater than 4,000 metres (13,200 ft).
Within the North Atlantic, ocean currents isolate a large elongated body of water known as the Sargasso Sea, in which the salinity is noticeably higher than average. The Sargasso Sea contains large amounts of seaweed and is also the spawning ground for both the European eel and the American eel.
Because of the Coriolis effect, water in the North Atlantic circulates in a clockwise direction, whereas water circulation in the South Atlantic is counter-clockwise. The south tides in the Atlantic Ocean are semi-diurnal; that is, two high tides occur during each 24 lunar hours. The tides are a general wave that moves from south to north. In latitudes above 40° North some east-west oscillation occurs.
Currents:
The circulatory system of the surface waters of the Atlantic can be depicted as two large gyres, or circular current systems, one in the North Atlantic and one in the South Atlantic. These currents are primarily wind driven, but are also affected by the rotation of the earth. The currents of the North Atlantic, which include the North Equatorial Current, the Canaries Current, and the Gulf Stream, flow in a clockwise direction. The currents in the South Atlantic, among which are the Brazil, Benguela, and South Equatorial currents, travel in a counterclockwise direction. Each gyre extends from near the equator to about latitude 45°; closer to the poles are the less completely defined counterrotating gyres, one rotating counterclockwise in the Arctic regions of the North Atlantic and one rotating clockwise near Antarctica in the South Atlantic. See Ocean and Oceanography: Ocean Currents.
The Atlantic receives the waters of many of the principal rivers of the world, among them the Saint Lawrence, Mississippi, Orinoco, Amazon, Paraná, Congo, Niger, and Loire, and the rivers emptying into the North, Baltic, and Mediterranean seas. Nevertheless, primarily because of the high salinity of outflow from the Mediterranean, the Atlantic is slightly more saline than the Pacific or Indian oceans.
Climate:
tropical cyclones (hurricanes) develop off the coast of Africa near Cape Verde and move westward into the Caribbean Sea; hurricanes can occur from May to December, but are most frequent from August to November.
The climate of the Atlantic Ocean and adjacent land areas is influenced by the temperatures of the surface waters and water currents as well as the winds blowing across the waters. Because of the ocean's great capacity for retaining heat, maritime climates are more moderate and have less tendency toward extreme seasonal variations than inland climates. Precipitation can be approximated from coastal weather data and air temperature from the water temperatures. The oceans are the major source of the atmospheric moisture that is obtained through evaporation. Climatic zones vary with latitude; the warmest climatic zones stretch across the Atlantic north of the equator. The coldest zones are in the high latitudes, with the coldest regions corresponding to the areas covered by sea ice. Ocean currents contribute to climatic control by transporting warm and cold waters to other regions. Adjacent land areas are affected by the winds that are cooled or warmed when blowing over these currents. The Gulf Stream and its northern extension towards Europe, the North Atlantic Drift, for example, warms the atmosphere of the British Isles and north-western Europe, and the cold water currents contribute to heavy fog off the coast of eastern Canada (the Grand Banks area) and the north-western coast of Africa. In general, winds tend to transport moisture and warm or cool air over land areas. Hurricanes develop in the southern part of the North Atlantic Ocean.
Temperatures:
The Atlantic Ocean may be described as a bed of water colder than 9° C (48° F)-the cold-water sphere-within which lies a bubble of water warmer than 9° C-the warm-water sphere. The warm-water sphere extends between latitude 50° north and latitude 50° south and has an average thickness of about 600 m (about 2000 ft). The most active circulation is found in the uppermost layer of warm water. Below this, circulation becomes increasingly sluggish as the temperature decreases.
Surface temperatures range from 0° C (32° F), found year-round at the Arctic and Antarctic margins, to 27° C (81° F) in the broad belt at the equator. At depths below 2000 m (about 6600 ft), temperatures of 2° C (36° F) are prevalent; in bottom waters, below 4000 m (about 13,200 ft), temperatures of -1° C (30° F) are common.
Seas:
Adriatic Sea, Aegean Sea, Alboran Sea, Argentine Sea, Bay of Biscay, Bay of Bothnia, Bay of Campeche, Bay of Fundy, Baltic Sea, Black Sea, Bothnian Sea, Caribbean Sea, Celtic Sea, Central Baltic Sea, Chesapeake Bay, Davis Strait, Denmark Strait, English Channel, Gulf of Bothnia, Gulf of Guinea, Gulf of Finland, Gulf of Mexico, Gulf of Sidra, Gulf of St. Lawrence, Gulf of Venezuela, Ionian Sea, Labrador Sea, Ligurian Sea, Irish Sea, Marmara Sea, Mediterranean Sea, Mirtoon Sea, North Sea, Norwegian Sea, Sea of Azov, Sea of Crete, Sea of the Hebrides, Sargasso Sea, Thracian Sea, Tyrrhenian Sea, Wadden Sea.
Islands:
The largest islands of the Atlantic Ocean lie on the continental shelves. Newfoundland is the principal island on the North American shelf; the British Isles are the major island group of the Eurafrican shelf. Other continental islands include the Falkland Islands, the only major group on the South American shelf, and the South Sandwich Islands on the Antarctic shelf.
Oceanic islands, usually of volcanic origin, are less common in the Atlantic Ocean than in the Pacific. Among these are the island arc of the Antilles (including Puerto Rico, Hispaniola, Jamaica, and Cuba). In the eastern Atlantic, the Madeiras, Canaries, Cape Verde, and the São Tomé-Príncipe group are the peaks of submarine ridges. The Azores, Saint Paul's Rocks, Ascension, and the Tristan da Cunha group are isolated peaks of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge system; the large island of Iceland is also the result of volcanic action at the Mid-Atlantic Ridge. Bermuda rises from the floor of the North American Basin, and Saint Helena from the Angola Basin.
Islands in the Atlantic Ocean include Greenland, Iceland, Faroe Islands, Great Britain (including numerous surrounding islands), Ireland, Rockall, Newfoundland, Sable Island, Azores, Madeira, Bermuda, Canary Islands, Caribbean, Cape Verde, Sao Tome e Principe, Annobon Province, St. Peter Island, Fernando de Noronha, Rocas Atoll, Ascension Island, Saint Helena, The Islands of Trindad, Tristan da Cunha, Gough Island (Also known as Diego Alvarez), Falkland Islands, Tierra del Fuego, South Georgia Island, South Sandwich Islands, and Bouvet Island.
Economy:
The Atlantic Ocean provides some of the world's most heavily trafficked sea routes, between and within the Eastern and Western Hemispheres. Other economic activity includes the exploitation of natural resources, e.g., fishing, dredging of aragonite sands (The Bahamas), and production of crude oil and natural gas (Caribbean Sea, Gulf of Mexico, and North Sea).The ocean has also contributed significantly to the development and economy of the countries around it. Besides its major transatlantic transportation and communication routes, the Atlantic offers abundant petroleum deposits in the sedimentary rocks of the continental shelves and the world's richest fishing resources, especially in the waters covering the shelves. The major species of fish caught are cod, haddock, hake, herring, and mackerel. The most productive areas include the Grand Banks of Newfoundland, the shelf area off Nova Scotia, Georges Bank off Cape Cod, the Bahama Banks, the waters around Iceland, the Irish Sea, the Dogger Bank of the North Sea, and the Falkland Banks. Eel, lobster, and whales have also been taken in great quantities. All these factors, taken together, tremendously enhance the Atlantic's great commercial value. Because of the threats to the ocean environment presented by oil spills, marine debris, and the incineration of toxic wastes at sea, various international treaties exist to reduce some forms of pollution.
Cultural significance:
Transatlantic travel played a major role in the expansion of Western civilization into the Americas. Today, it can be referred to in a humorously diminutive way as the Pond in idioms, in reference to the geographical and cultural divide between North America and Europe. Some British people refer to the USA as "across the pond".
History:
The Atlantic Ocean appears to be the second youngest of all five oceans. Evidence indicates that it did not exist prior to 150 million years ago, when the continents that formed from the breakup of the ancestral super continent, Pangaea, were being rifted apart by the process of seafloor spreading. The Atlantic has been extensively explored since the earliest settlements were established along its shores. The Vikings, the Portuguese, and Christopher Columbus were the most famous among its early explorers. After Columbus, European exploration rapidly accelerated, and many new trade routes were established. As a result, the Atlantic became and remains the major artery between Europe and the Americas (known as transatlantic trade). Numerous scientific explorations have been undertaken, most famously the Challenger expedition, but also including those by the German Meteor expedition, Columbia University's Lamont Geological Observatory, and the United States Navy Hydrographic Office.
Timeline of events:
In 1000, Leif Eriksson is the first European to discover the Atlantic coast of North America, including Vinland. The Norse discovery is documented in the 13th century Icelandic Sagas and is corroborated by recent archeological evidence.
In 1003, Thorfinnr Karlsefni leads an attempted Viking settlement in North America but is driven off by the natives.
In 1004, Snorri Thorfinnsson is the first European born on the American continent.
In 1419 and 1427, Portuguese navigators reach Madeira and Azores, respectively.
From 1415 to 1488, Portuguese navigators sail along the Western African coast, reaching the Cape of Good Hope.
In 1492, Christopher Columbus lands somewhere in the Bahamas.
From 1499 to 1502, Amerigo Vespucci maps the east coast of South America, proving that the Americas are not the east edge of Asia but continentally separate.
In 1500, Pedro Álvares Cabral reaches Brazil.
In 1524, Italian explorer Giovanni da Verrazzano discovers the Atlantic coast of what is today the United States of America.
In 1764 William Harrison (the son of John Harrison) sailed aboard the HMS Tartar, with the H-4 time piece. The voyage became the basis for the invention of the global system of Longitude.
In 1858, the first transatlantic telegraph cable was laid by Cyrus West Field, though it rapidly failed.
In 1865 the first successful transatlantic telegraph cable was laid by Brunel's ship the Great Eastern.
On April 15, 1912 the RMS Titanic sank after hitting an iceberg with a loss of more than 1,500 lives.
1914-1918, the First Battle of the Atlantic.
In 1919, the American NC-4 became the first fixed-wing aircraft (seaplane) to cross the Atlantic (though it made a couple of landings on islands and the sea along the way, and taxied several hundred miles on the surface).
Later in 1919, a British aeroplane piloted by Alcock and Brown made the first non-stop transatlantic flight, from Newfoundland to Ireland.
In 1921, the British were the first to cross the North Atlantic in an airship.
In 1922, Sacadura Cabral and Gago Coutinho were the first to cross the South Atlantic in an airship.
The first transatlantic telephone call was made on January 7, 1927.
In 1927, Charles Lindbergh made the first solo non-stop transatlantic flight in an aircraft (between New York City and Paris).
1939-1945, the Second Battle of the Atlantic
In 1952, Ann Davison was the first woman to single-handedly sail the Atlantic Ocean.
In 1980, Gérard d'Aboville is the first man to cross the Atlantic Ocean rowing.
In 1994, Guy Delage was the first man to swim across the Atlantic Ocean (with the help of a kick board, from the Cape Verde islands to Barbados.
In 1998, Benoit Lecomte was the first man to swim across the northern Atlantic Ocean without the help of a kick board, stopping for only one week in the Azores.
In 1999, after rowing for 81 days and 4,767 kilometres (2,962 mi), Tori Murden became the first woman to cross the Atlantic Ocean by rowboat alone when she reached Guadeloupe from the Canary Islands.
Natural resources:
Petroleum and gas fields, fish, marine mammals (seals and whales), sand and gravel aggregates, placer deposits, polymetallic nodules, precious stones.
The Atlantic Ocean contains some of the world's most productive fisheries, located on the continental shelves and marine ridges off the British Isles, Iceland, Canada (especially the Grand Banks off Newfoundland), and the northeastern United States. Upwelling areas, in which the nutrient-rich waters of the ocean depths flow up to the surface, as in the vicinity of Walvis Bay off southwestern Africa, also have abundant sea life. Herring, anchovy, sardine, cod, flounder, and perch are the most important commercial species. Tuna is taken off northwestern Africa and northeastern South America in increasing numbers. The catch per unit area is much higher in the Atlantic than in the other oceans.
A remarkable example of plant life is found in the Sargasso Sea, the oval section of the North Atlantic lying between the West Indies and the Azores and bounded on the west and north by the Gulf Stream. Here extensive patches of brown gulfweed (Sargassum) are found on the relatively still surface waters.
Actively mined mineral resources in the Atlantic include titanium, zircon, and monazite (phosphates of the cerium metals), off the eastern coast of Florida, and tin and iron ore, off the equatorial coast of Africa. The continental shelves and slopes of the Atlantic are potentially very rich in fossil fuels. Large amounts of petroleum are already being extracted in the North Sea and in the Caribbean Sea-Gulf of Mexico region; lesser amounts are extracted off the coast of Africa in the Gulf of Guinea.
Current environmental issues:
Endangered marine species include the manatee, seals, sea lions, turtles, and whales. Drift net fishing is killing dolphins, albatrosses and other seabirds (petrels, auks), hastening the decline of fish stocks and contributing to international disputes.There is municipal sludge pollution off the eastern United States, southern Brazil, and eastern Argentina; oil pollution in the Caribbean Sea, Gulf of Mexico, Lake Maracaibo, Mediterranean Sea, and North Sea; and industrial waste and municipal sewage pollution in the Baltic Sea, North Sea, and Mediterranean Sea.
In 2005, there was some concern that the currents warming northern Europe were slowing down, but no scientific consensus was formed based on the reported evidence.
On June 7, 2006, Florida's wildlife commission voted to take the manatee off the state's endangered species list. Some environmentalists worry that this could erode safeguards for the popular sea creature.
Marine pollution:
Marine pollution is a generic term for the harmful entry into the ocean of chemicals or particles. The biggest culprit are rivers that empty into the Ocean, and with it the many chemicals used as fertilizers in agriculture as well as waste from livestock and humans. The excess of oxygen depleting chemicals in the water leads to hypoxia and the creation of a dead zone.[6]
Marine debris, also known as marine litter, is a term used to describe human-created waste that has found itself floating in a lake, sea, ocean or waterway. Oceanic debris tends to accumulate at the centre of gyres and coastlines, frequently washing aground where it is known as beach litter.
Natural hazards:
Icebergs are common in the Davis Strait, Denmark Strait, and the northwestern Atlantic Ocean from February to August and have been spotted as far south as Bermuda and the Madeira Islands. Ships are subject to superstructure icing in extreme northern Atlantic from October to May. Persistent fog can be a maritime hazard from May to September, as can hurricanes north of the equator (May to December).
The southeast coast of the United States has a history of shipwrecks due to its many shoals and reefs. The Virginia and North Carolina coasts were particularly dangerous.
The Bermuda Triangle is popularly believed to be the site of numerous aviation and shipping incidents because of unexplained and supposedly mysterious causes, but coast guard records do not support this belief.
Ports and harbors:
Alexandria (Egypt), Algiers (Algeria), Antwerp (Belgium), Barcelona (Spain), Buenos Aires (Argentina), Casablanca (Morocco), Colon (Panama), Copenhagen (Denmark), Dakar (Senegal), Gdansk (Poland), Hamburg (Germany), Helsinki (Finland), Las Palmas (Canary Islands, Spain), Le Havre (France), Lisbon (Portugal), London (UK), Marseille (France), Montevideo (Uruguay), Montreal (Canada), Naples (Italy), New Orleans (US), New York (US), Oran (Algeria), Oslo (Norway), Peiraiefs or Piraeus (Greece), Rio de Janeiro (Brazil), Rotterdam (Netherlands), Saint Petersburg (Russia), Stockholm (Sweden)
Kiel Canal and Saint Lawrence Seaway are two important waterways; significant domestic commercial and recreational use of Intracoastal Waterway on central and south Atlantic seaboard and Gulf of Mexico coast of US.
Africa:
Accra, Ghana. Banjul, The Gambia. Bissau, Guinea-Bissau. Conakry, Guinea. Dakar, Senegal. Douala, Cameroon. Lomé, Togo.
Luanda, Angola. Malabo, Equatorial Guinea. Monrovia, Liberia. Praia, Cape Verde. Walvis Bay, Namibia. Douala, Cameroon.
Benin: Cotonou, Benin. Porto-Novo, Benin.
Côte d'Ivoire: Abidjan, Côte d'Ivoire. San-Pédro, Côte d'Ivoire. Île de Boulay, Côte d'Ivoire.
Gabon: Libreville, Gabon. Port Gentil, Gabon.
Mauritania: Nouadhibou, Mauritania. Nouakchott, Mauritania.
Morocco: Casablanca, Morocco. Rabat, Morocco. Tangier, Morocco.
Nigeria: Lagos, Nigeria. Port Harcourt, Nigeria.
South Africa: Cape Town, South Africa. Port Nolloth, South Africa. Saldanha Bay, South Africa.
Caribbean: San Juan, Puerto Rico. Puerto Cortés, Honduras. Willemstad, Netherlands Antilles. Basseterre, Saint Kitts and Nevis.
Colon City, Panama. Puerto Barrios, Guatemala. Belize City, Belize.
Havana, Cuba. Kingston, Jamaica. Bridgetown, Barbados (Deep Water Harbour).
Europe:
Cultural significance:
Transatlantic travel played a major role in the expansion of Western civilization into the Americas. Today, it can be referred to in a humorously diminutive way as the Pond in idioms, in reference to the geographical and cultural divide between North America and Europe. Some British people refer to the USA as "across the pond".
History:
The Atlantic Ocean appears to be the second youngest of all five oceans. Evidence indicates that it did not exist prior to 150 million years ago, when the continents that formed from the breakup of the ancestral super continent, Pangaea, were being rifted apart by the process of seafloor spreading. The Atlantic has been extensively explored since the earliest settlements were established along its shores. The Vikings, the Portuguese, and Christopher Columbus were the most famous among its early explorers. After Columbus, European exploration rapidly accelerated, and many new trade routes were established. As a result, the Atlantic became and remains the major artery between Europe and the Americas (known as transatlantic trade). Numerous scientific explorations have been undertaken, most famously the Challenger expedition, but also including those by the German Meteor expedition, Columbia University's Lamont Geological Observatory, and the United States Navy Hydrographic Office.
Timeline of events:
In 1000, Leif Eriksson is the first European to discover the Atlantic coast of North America, including Vinland. The Norse discovery is documented in the 13th century Icelandic Sagas and is corroborated by recent archeological evidence.
In 1003, Thorfinnr Karlsefni leads an attempted Viking settlement in North America but is driven off by the natives.
In 1004, Snorri Thorfinnsson is the first European born on the American continent.
In 1419 and 1427, Portuguese navigators reach Madeira and Azores, respectively.
From 1415 to 1488, Portuguese navigators sail along the Western African coast, reaching the Cape of Good Hope.
In 1492, Christopher Columbus lands somewhere in the Bahamas.
From 1499 to 1502, Amerigo Vespucci maps the east coast of South America, proving that the Americas are not the east edge of Asia but continentally separate.
In 1500, Pedro Álvares Cabral reaches Brazil.
In 1524, Italian explorer Giovanni da Verrazzano discovers the Atlantic coast of what is today the United States of America.
In 1764 William Harrison (the son of John Harrison) sailed aboard the HMS Tartar, with the H-4 time piece. The voyage became the basis for the invention of the global system of Longitude.
In 1858, the first transatlantic telegraph cable was laid by Cyrus West Field, though it rapidly failed.
In 1865 the first successful transatlantic telegraph cable was laid by Brunel's ship the Great Eastern.
On April 15, 1912 the RMS Titanic sank after hitting an iceberg with a loss of more than 1,500 lives.
1914-1918, the First Battle of the Atlantic.
In 1919, the American NC-4 became the first fixed-wing aircraft (seaplane) to cross the Atlantic (though it made a couple of landings on islands and the sea along the way, and taxied several hundred miles on the surface).
Later in 1919, a British aeroplane piloted by Alcock and Brown made the first non-stop transatlantic flight, from Newfoundland to Ireland.
In 1921, the British were the first to cross the North Atlantic in an airship.
In 1922, Sacadura Cabral and Gago Coutinho were the first to cross the South Atlantic in an airship.
The first transatlantic telephone call was made on January 7, 1927.
In 1927, Charles Lindbergh made the first solo non-stop transatlantic flight in an aircraft (between New York City and Paris).
1939-1945, the Second Battle of the Atlantic
In 1952, Ann Davison was the first woman to single-handedly sail the Atlantic Ocean.
In 1980, Gérard d'Aboville is the first man to cross the Atlantic Ocean rowing.
In 1994, Guy Delage was the first man to swim across the Atlantic Ocean (with the help of a kick board, from the Cape Verde islands to Barbados.
In 1998, Benoit Lecomte was the first man to swim across the northern Atlantic Ocean without the help of a kick board, stopping for only one week in the Azores.
In 1999, after rowing for 81 days and 4,767 kilometres (2,962 mi), Tori Murden became the first woman to cross the Atlantic Ocean by rowboat alone when she reached Guadeloupe from the Canary Islands.
Natural resources:
Petroleum and gas fields, fish, marine mammals (seals and whales), sand and gravel aggregates, placer deposits, polymetallic nodules, precious stones.
The Atlantic Ocean contains some of the world's most productive fisheries, located on the continental shelves and marine ridges off the British Isles, Iceland, Canada (especially the Grand Banks off Newfoundland), and the northeastern United States. Upwelling areas, in which the nutrient-rich waters of the ocean depths flow up to the surface, as in the vicinity of Walvis Bay off southwestern Africa, also have abundant sea life. Herring, anchovy, sardine, cod, flounder, and perch are the most important commercial species. Tuna is taken off northwestern Africa and northeastern South America in increasing numbers. The catch per unit area is much higher in the Atlantic than in the other oceans.
A remarkable example of plant life is found in the Sargasso Sea, the oval section of the North Atlantic lying between the West Indies and the Azores and bounded on the west and north by the Gulf Stream. Here extensive patches of brown gulfweed (Sargassum) are found on the relatively still surface waters.
Actively mined mineral resources in the Atlantic include titanium, zircon, and monazite (phosphates of the cerium metals), off the eastern coast of Florida, and tin and iron ore, off the equatorial coast of Africa. The continental shelves and slopes of the Atlantic are potentially very rich in fossil fuels. Large amounts of petroleum are already being extracted in the North Sea and in the Caribbean Sea-Gulf of Mexico region; lesser amounts are extracted off the coast of Africa in the Gulf of Guinea.
Current environmental issues:
Endangered marine species include the manatee, seals, sea lions, turtles, and whales. Drift net fishing is killing dolphins, albatrosses and other seabirds (petrels, auks), hastening the decline of fish stocks and contributing to international disputes.There is municipal sludge pollution off the eastern United States, southern Brazil, and eastern Argentina; oil pollution in the Caribbean Sea, Gulf of Mexico, Lake Maracaibo, Mediterranean Sea, and North Sea; and industrial waste and municipal sewage pollution in the Baltic Sea, North Sea, and Mediterranean Sea.
In 2005, there was some concern that the currents warming northern Europe were slowing down, but no scientific consensus was formed based on the reported evidence.
On June 7, 2006, Florida's wildlife commission voted to take the manatee off the state's endangered species list. Some environmentalists worry that this could erode safeguards for the popular sea creature.
Marine pollution:
Marine pollution is a generic term for the harmful entry into the ocean of chemicals or particles. The biggest culprit are rivers that empty into the Ocean, and with it the many chemicals used as fertilizers in agriculture as well as waste from livestock and humans. The excess of oxygen depleting chemicals in the water leads to hypoxia and the creation of a dead zone.[6]
Marine debris, also known as marine litter, is a term used to describe human-created waste that has found itself floating in a lake, sea, ocean or waterway. Oceanic debris tends to accumulate at the centre of gyres and coastlines, frequently washing aground where it is known as beach litter.
Natural hazards:
Icebergs are common in the Davis Strait, Denmark Strait, and the northwestern Atlantic Ocean from February to August and have been spotted as far south as Bermuda and the Madeira Islands. Ships are subject to superstructure icing in extreme northern Atlantic from October to May. Persistent fog can be a maritime hazard from May to September, as can hurricanes north of the equator (May to December).
The southeast coast of the United States has a history of shipwrecks due to its many shoals and reefs. The Virginia and North Carolina coasts were particularly dangerous.
The Bermuda Triangle is popularly believed to be the site of numerous aviation and shipping incidents because of unexplained and supposedly mysterious causes, but coast guard records do not support this belief.
Ports and harbors:
Alexandria (Egypt), Algiers (Algeria), Antwerp (Belgium), Barcelona (Spain), Buenos Aires (Argentina), Casablanca (Morocco), Colon (Panama), Copenhagen (Denmark), Dakar (Senegal), Gdansk (Poland), Hamburg (Germany), Helsinki (Finland), Las Palmas (Canary Islands, Spain), Le Havre (France), Lisbon (Portugal), London (UK), Marseille (France), Montevideo (Uruguay), Montreal (Canada), Naples (Italy), New Orleans (US), New York (US), Oran (Algeria), Oslo (Norway), Peiraiefs or Piraeus (Greece), Rio de Janeiro (Brazil), Rotterdam (Netherlands), Saint Petersburg (Russia), Stockholm (Sweden)
Kiel Canal and Saint Lawrence Seaway are two important waterways; significant domestic commercial and recreational use of Intracoastal Waterway on central and south Atlantic seaboard and Gulf of Mexico coast of US.
Africa:
Accra, Ghana. Banjul, The Gambia. Bissau, Guinea-Bissau. Conakry, Guinea. Dakar, Senegal. Douala, Cameroon. Lomé, Togo.
Luanda, Angola. Malabo, Equatorial Guinea. Monrovia, Liberia. Praia, Cape Verde. Walvis Bay, Namibia. Douala, Cameroon.
Benin: Cotonou, Benin. Porto-Novo, Benin.
Côte d'Ivoire: Abidjan, Côte d'Ivoire. San-Pédro, Côte d'Ivoire. Île de Boulay, Côte d'Ivoire.
Gabon: Libreville, Gabon. Port Gentil, Gabon.
Mauritania: Nouadhibou, Mauritania. Nouakchott, Mauritania.
Morocco: Casablanca, Morocco. Rabat, Morocco. Tangier, Morocco.
Nigeria: Lagos, Nigeria. Port Harcourt, Nigeria.
South Africa: Cape Town, South Africa. Port Nolloth, South Africa. Saldanha Bay, South Africa.
Caribbean: San Juan, Puerto Rico. Puerto Cortés, Honduras. Willemstad, Netherlands Antilles. Basseterre, Saint Kitts and Nevis.
Colon City, Panama. Puerto Barrios, Guatemala. Belize City, Belize.
Havana, Cuba. Kingston, Jamaica. Bridgetown, Barbados (Deep Water Harbour).
Europe:
Belgium: Antwerp. Bruges-Zeebrugge. Ostend.
Canary Islands: Las Palmas de Gran Canaria. Santa Cruz de Tenerife.
Denmark: Esbjerg.
Faroe Islands: Klaksvík. Tórshavn.
France: Bayonne. Bordeaux. Brest. Calais, France. Cherbourg-Octeville. Le Havre. Nantes. Saint-Nazaire.
Germany: Bremen. Hamburg.
Iceland: Hafnarfjörður. Reykjavík.
Republic of Ireland: Cork. Dublin Port. Galway. Shannon Foynes Port. Rosslare Europort.
Netherlands: Rotterdam. Amsterdam. Vlissingen. Delfzijl. IJmuiden. Den Helder.
Norway: Ålesund. Bergen. Bodø. Brønnøysund. Florø. Harstad. Haugesund. Kristiansund. Molde. Namsos. Narvik. Oslo. Rørvik. Stavanger. Svolvær. Tromsø. Trondheim.
Portugal: Angra do Heroísmo. Aveiro. Cascais. Figueira da Foz. Funchal. Horta. Lisbon. Lagos. Leixões. Olhão. Peniche. Ponta Delgada. Portimão. Porto. Santa Cruz das Flores. Sesimbra. Sines. Tavira. Viana do Castelo. Vila do Porto. Vila Real de Santo António.
Spain: A Coruña. Avilés. Bilbao. Cadiz. El Ferrol. Gijón. Huelva. Marín. Las Palmas de Gran Canaria. Pasaia. El Puerto de Santa María. Seville. Santa Cruz de Tenerife. Santander. Vigo. Vilagarcía de Arousa.
Sweden: Gothenburg.
United Kingdom: Aberdeen, Scotland. Barry, Wales. Belfast, Northern Ireland. Bristol, England. Cardiff, Wales. Derry, Northern Ireland. Dover, England. Edinburgh, Scotland. Fishguard Harbour, Wales. Fleetwood, England. Glasgow, Scotland. Greenock, Scotland. Holyhead, Wales. Hull, England. Larne, Northern Ireland. Liverpool, England. London, England. Milford Haven, Wales. Newcastle upon Tyne, England. Newport, Wales. Pembroke Dock, Wales. Peterhead, Scotland. Plymouth, England. Portsmouth, England. Port Talbot, Wales. Southampton, England. Swansea, Wales.
North America:
Canada: Charlottetown, Prince Edward Island. Corner Brook, Newfoundland and Labrador Digby, Nova Scotia. Halifax, Nova Scotia. Happy Valley-Goose Bay, Newfoundland and Labrador. Melford, Nova Scotia (proposed). Saint John, New Brunswick.
Shelburne, Nova Scotia. Sept-Îles, Quebec. St.John's, Newfoundland and Labrador. Sydney, Nova Scotia. Yarmouth, Nova Scotia.
Mexico: Tampico, Tamaulipas. Ciudad Madero, Tamaulipas. Río Largartos,Yucatán. Progreso, Yucatán. Alvarado, Veracruz. Tamiahua, Veracruz. Barra de Tuxpan, Veracruz. Tecolutla, Veracruz. Tuxpan, Veracruz. Anton Lizardo, Veracruz. Veracruz, Veracruz. Coatzacoalcos, Veracruz. Celestún, Yucatán. Sisal, Yucatán. Dzilam de Bravo, Yucatán. Las Coloradas, Yucatán. Isla Mujeres, Quintana Roo. Cozumel, Quintana Roo. Chetumal, Quintana Roo. Cancún, Quintana Roo. Sánchez Magallanes, Tabasco. Puerto dos Bocas, Tabasco. Barra Chiltepec, Tabasco. La Barra, Tabasco. Ciudad del Carmen, Campeche. Isla Aguada, Campeche. Champoton, Campeche. Campeche, Campeche.
United States: Port of Albany-Rensselaer, New York. Baltimore, Maryland. Beaumont, Texas. Brunswick, Georgia. Boston, Massachusetts. Charleston, South Carolina. Corpus Christi, Texas. Freeport, Texas. Galveston, Texas. Gloucester, Massachusetts. Houston, Texas. Jacksonville, Florida. Port of Miami-Dade, Florida.
Mobile, Alabama. Morehead City, North Carolina. Nantucket, Massachusetts. New Haven, Connecticut. New London, Connecticut. New Orleans, Louisiana. New York, New York. Newport News, Virginia. Norfolk, Virginia. Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. Port Arthur, Texas. Port of Greater Baton Rouge. Port Canaveral, Florida. Port Everglades. Port of Palm Beach. Port of South Louisiana. Port Newark-Elizabeth Marine Terminal. Portland, Maine. Portsmouth, New Hampshire. Providence, Rhode Island. Provincetown, Massachusetts. Savannah, Georgia. Tampa, Florida. Texas City, Texas. Wilmington, North Carolina.
South America:
Argentina: Comodoro Rivadavia. Rosario (via the Paraná River).
Ushuaia. Buenos Aires. Bahia Blanca. Mar del Plata.
Brazil: Macapá, Amapá (via the Amazon river). Manaus, Amazonas (via Negro and Amazon rivers). Porto Velho, Rondônia (via Madeira and Amazon rivers). Santarém, Pará (via the Amazon river). Belém, Pará (via the Amazon river - Pará arm). Vila do Conde, Pará (via the Amazon river - Pará arm). Itaqui, Maranhão.
Pecém, Ceará. Fortaleza, Ceará. Areia Branca, Rio Grande do Norte. Natal, Rio Grande do Norte. Cabedelo, Paraíba. Recife, Pernambuco. Suape, Pernambuco. Maceió, Alagoas. Barra dos Coqueiros, Sergipe. Salvador, Bahia. Aratu, Bahia. Vitória, Espírito Santo. Ubu, Espírito Santo. Tubarão, Espírito Santo. TVV, Espírito Santo. Praia Mole, Espírito Santo. Regência, Espírito Santo. Barra do Riacho, Espírito Santo. Macaé (Imbetiba), Rio de Janeiro. Niterói, Rio de Janeiro. Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro. Itaguaí (Sepetiba), Rio de Janeiro. Angra dos Reis, Rio de Janeiro. São Sebastião, São Paulo. Santos, São Paulo. Antonina, Paraná. Paranaguá, Paraná. São Francisco do Sul, Santa Catarina. Itajaí, Santa Catarina. Imbituba, Santa Catarina. Laguna, Santa Catarina. Porto Alegre, Rio Grande do Sul. Pelotas, Rio Grande do Sul. Rio Grande, Rio Grande do Sul. Cáceres, Mato Grosso (via Paraguay and Paraná rivers). Corumbá, Mato Grosso do Sul (via Paraguay and Paraná rivers).
Chile: Punta Arenas. Puerto Williams.
Colombia: Barranquilla, Atlántico. Cartagena, Bolívar.
Falkland Islands: Stanley. Mare Harbour.
French Guiana: Cayenne.
Guyana: Georgetown.
South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands: Grytviken. King Edward Point.
Surinam: Paramaribo.
Uruguay: Carmelo. Colonia del Sacramento. La Paloma. Montevideo. Piriapolis. Punta del Este.
Venezuela: Ciudad Bolívar, Bolívar (via the Orinoco river). Guanta, Anzoátegui. La Guaira, Vargas. Maracaibo, Zulia. Porlamar (Isla Margarita), Nueva Esparta. Puerto Cabello, Carabobo.
Canary Islands: Las Palmas de Gran Canaria. Santa Cruz de Tenerife.
Denmark: Esbjerg.
Faroe Islands: Klaksvík. Tórshavn.
France: Bayonne. Bordeaux. Brest. Calais, France. Cherbourg-Octeville. Le Havre. Nantes. Saint-Nazaire.
Germany: Bremen. Hamburg.
Iceland: Hafnarfjörður. Reykjavík.
Republic of Ireland: Cork. Dublin Port. Galway. Shannon Foynes Port. Rosslare Europort.
Netherlands: Rotterdam. Amsterdam. Vlissingen. Delfzijl. IJmuiden. Den Helder.
Norway: Ålesund. Bergen. Bodø. Brønnøysund. Florø. Harstad. Haugesund. Kristiansund. Molde. Namsos. Narvik. Oslo. Rørvik. Stavanger. Svolvær. Tromsø. Trondheim.
Portugal: Angra do Heroísmo. Aveiro. Cascais. Figueira da Foz. Funchal. Horta. Lisbon. Lagos. Leixões. Olhão. Peniche. Ponta Delgada. Portimão. Porto. Santa Cruz das Flores. Sesimbra. Sines. Tavira. Viana do Castelo. Vila do Porto. Vila Real de Santo António.
Spain: A Coruña. Avilés. Bilbao. Cadiz. El Ferrol. Gijón. Huelva. Marín. Las Palmas de Gran Canaria. Pasaia. El Puerto de Santa María. Seville. Santa Cruz de Tenerife. Santander. Vigo. Vilagarcía de Arousa.
Sweden: Gothenburg.
United Kingdom: Aberdeen, Scotland. Barry, Wales. Belfast, Northern Ireland. Bristol, England. Cardiff, Wales. Derry, Northern Ireland. Dover, England. Edinburgh, Scotland. Fishguard Harbour, Wales. Fleetwood, England. Glasgow, Scotland. Greenock, Scotland. Holyhead, Wales. Hull, England. Larne, Northern Ireland. Liverpool, England. London, England. Milford Haven, Wales. Newcastle upon Tyne, England. Newport, Wales. Pembroke Dock, Wales. Peterhead, Scotland. Plymouth, England. Portsmouth, England. Port Talbot, Wales. Southampton, England. Swansea, Wales.
North America:
Canada: Charlottetown, Prince Edward Island. Corner Brook, Newfoundland and Labrador Digby, Nova Scotia. Halifax, Nova Scotia. Happy Valley-Goose Bay, Newfoundland and Labrador. Melford, Nova Scotia (proposed). Saint John, New Brunswick.
Shelburne, Nova Scotia. Sept-Îles, Quebec. St.John's, Newfoundland and Labrador. Sydney, Nova Scotia. Yarmouth, Nova Scotia.
Mexico: Tampico, Tamaulipas. Ciudad Madero, Tamaulipas. Río Largartos,Yucatán. Progreso, Yucatán. Alvarado, Veracruz. Tamiahua, Veracruz. Barra de Tuxpan, Veracruz. Tecolutla, Veracruz. Tuxpan, Veracruz. Anton Lizardo, Veracruz. Veracruz, Veracruz. Coatzacoalcos, Veracruz. Celestún, Yucatán. Sisal, Yucatán. Dzilam de Bravo, Yucatán. Las Coloradas, Yucatán. Isla Mujeres, Quintana Roo. Cozumel, Quintana Roo. Chetumal, Quintana Roo. Cancún, Quintana Roo. Sánchez Magallanes, Tabasco. Puerto dos Bocas, Tabasco. Barra Chiltepec, Tabasco. La Barra, Tabasco. Ciudad del Carmen, Campeche. Isla Aguada, Campeche. Champoton, Campeche. Campeche, Campeche.
United States: Port of Albany-Rensselaer, New York. Baltimore, Maryland. Beaumont, Texas. Brunswick, Georgia. Boston, Massachusetts. Charleston, South Carolina. Corpus Christi, Texas. Freeport, Texas. Galveston, Texas. Gloucester, Massachusetts. Houston, Texas. Jacksonville, Florida. Port of Miami-Dade, Florida.
Mobile, Alabama. Morehead City, North Carolina. Nantucket, Massachusetts. New Haven, Connecticut. New London, Connecticut. New Orleans, Louisiana. New York, New York. Newport News, Virginia. Norfolk, Virginia. Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. Port Arthur, Texas. Port of Greater Baton Rouge. Port Canaveral, Florida. Port Everglades. Port of Palm Beach. Port of South Louisiana. Port Newark-Elizabeth Marine Terminal. Portland, Maine. Portsmouth, New Hampshire. Providence, Rhode Island. Provincetown, Massachusetts. Savannah, Georgia. Tampa, Florida. Texas City, Texas. Wilmington, North Carolina.
South America:
Argentina: Comodoro Rivadavia. Rosario (via the Paraná River).
Ushuaia. Buenos Aires. Bahia Blanca. Mar del Plata.
Brazil: Macapá, Amapá (via the Amazon river). Manaus, Amazonas (via Negro and Amazon rivers). Porto Velho, Rondônia (via Madeira and Amazon rivers). Santarém, Pará (via the Amazon river). Belém, Pará (via the Amazon river - Pará arm). Vila do Conde, Pará (via the Amazon river - Pará arm). Itaqui, Maranhão.
Pecém, Ceará. Fortaleza, Ceará. Areia Branca, Rio Grande do Norte. Natal, Rio Grande do Norte. Cabedelo, Paraíba. Recife, Pernambuco. Suape, Pernambuco. Maceió, Alagoas. Barra dos Coqueiros, Sergipe. Salvador, Bahia. Aratu, Bahia. Vitória, Espírito Santo. Ubu, Espírito Santo. Tubarão, Espírito Santo. TVV, Espírito Santo. Praia Mole, Espírito Santo. Regência, Espírito Santo. Barra do Riacho, Espírito Santo. Macaé (Imbetiba), Rio de Janeiro. Niterói, Rio de Janeiro. Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro. Itaguaí (Sepetiba), Rio de Janeiro. Angra dos Reis, Rio de Janeiro. São Sebastião, São Paulo. Santos, São Paulo. Antonina, Paraná. Paranaguá, Paraná. São Francisco do Sul, Santa Catarina. Itajaí, Santa Catarina. Imbituba, Santa Catarina. Laguna, Santa Catarina. Porto Alegre, Rio Grande do Sul. Pelotas, Rio Grande do Sul. Rio Grande, Rio Grande do Sul. Cáceres, Mato Grosso (via Paraguay and Paraná rivers). Corumbá, Mato Grosso do Sul (via Paraguay and Paraná rivers).
Chile: Punta Arenas. Puerto Williams.
Colombia: Barranquilla, Atlántico. Cartagena, Bolívar.
Falkland Islands: Stanley. Mare Harbour.
French Guiana: Cayenne.
Guyana: Georgetown.
South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands: Grytviken. King Edward Point.
Surinam: Paramaribo.
Uruguay: Carmelo. Colonia del Sacramento. La Paloma. Montevideo. Piriapolis. Punta del Este.
Venezuela: Ciudad Bolívar, Bolívar (via the Orinoco river). Guanta, Anzoátegui. La Guaira, Vargas. Maracaibo, Zulia. Porlamar (Isla Margarita), Nueva Esparta. Puerto Cabello, Carabobo.
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